Importance of inclusion
As British schools have become more multicultural over the years, teachers have to face the challenge of overcoming the language barriers for the EAL (English as an Additional Language) pupils. Each child brings a unique contribution to the classroom and inclusive education needs to respond to more diversity. The children’s rights alliance article 28 states that “All children, no matter what their ability, interests or background, have a right to an education that will help them achieve their potential without discrimination” (CRAE, 2014: 66). EAL pupils are protected by law under Race which is a ‘protected characteristic’. The Equality Act (2010) states, schools must not discriminate against any pupils, in the way they provide education, afford access to facility/service and must not subject them to any other detriment. EAL pupils are not a homogeneous group; therefore, schools need to be aware that each pupil and group has different needs according to their language proficiency (NALDIC, 2012). According to DfE (2016), from autumn 2016, schools are required to categorise their EAL pupils using the categories of A (new to English), B (early acquisition), C (developing competency), D (competent), E (fluent) and N (not yet assessed). As each EAL pupil is at a different level of understanding of the English language, this task becomes more challenging for teachers as for how to cater for each EAL pupil without disadvantaging other pupils. This essay will now examine EAL as a whole-school educational issue with possible solutions.
English as an additional language
According to Ofsted (2015), ‘English as an additional language (EAL) refers to learners whose first language is not English’. The understanding and fluency of English for each pupil might have a different level and different social, cultural and economic background. They may have acquired other languages prior to or at the same time as acquiring English language (NALDIC, 1999). An additional language could be a necessity for learners since arriving in Britain. For example, at my previous school, a Bulgarian pupil has learnt Romanian within 2 months of arriving in the UK because the pupils she associates with are mostly Romanian. However, this pupil may not use Romanian outside school or in her community. EAL pupils face a range of difficulties: they have to acquire a new language before they can access the school curriculum or socialise. The burden of responsibility lies with schools on how to adopt appropriate strategies which are designed for each EAL pupil’s needs. In some schools in England, the number of EAL pupils has risen considerably, 20% of the UK school population is EAL resulting in the requirement for a change in pedagogy. EAL pupils in English schools have doubled from 7.6% in 1997 to 16.2% in 2013 (Strand et al, 2015: 5). This example demonstrates that pupils not only have to learn a new language; they also have to become accustomed to mainstream English schools. Schools must take this into account when assessing new EAL arrivals and when planning provision for those pupils. Second language acquisition stages can be explained by Cummins models. In his early work, Cummins (1979, 1981, 1984) has demonstrated the second language proficiency through BICS (Basic Interpersonal Communicative Skills) and CALP (Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency). According to Cummins, “BICS describes the development of conversational fluency in the second language whereas CALP describes the use of language in decontextualised academic situations” (NALDIC, 2011).
Cummins BICS and CALP (1976 - Present)
Cummins who introduced the Iceberg Model; suggested “that learners first develop conversational skills in face-to-face contextualised situations and then further develop language for academic success. BICS is described as surface fluency for simple conversations, it relies on visual and non-verbal support i.e., body language, facial expressions and is not cognitively challenging. BICS is used by the learner in social and communicative context” (Cummins, 1979). BICS can take up to two years for EAL pupils from the date of arrival at schools. CALP is used in context reduced academic situations, no diagram or visual support is required. CALP is a cognitively demanding stage and is needed for expressing higher-order thinking, i.e., analysis, synthesis and evaluate (Bloom’s Taxonomy, 1956) in both oral and written modes, concepts and ideas that are relevant to success in academics. Based on these studies, the majority of schools today plan and design their ‘intervention classes’ for the inclusion of EAL pupils and decide the time frame for that support accordingly. In my present school, 92% of pupils are termed as EAL. There are interventions in place for the new arrival (EAL pupils) to the school.
Acquisition of Second language: A Conceptual Model
Many studies have been carried out on how EAL pupils acquire proficiency in a second language while learning how to access the academic curriculum in their new country. One study widely used and recognised is Collier’s conceptual model, also referred to as ‘the prism model’ as it is multifaceted. The model has four major components: sociocultural processes, linguistics, academic and cognitive processes (Collier, 1995). At the centre of this prism, Collier placed the sociocultural processes, in other words, what an EAL pupil experiences at school and home including their interaction with non-EAL and EAL communities and cultures. The progress of these pupils depends on the positive and negative interaction experiences at school and in their social settings. The second facet of Collier model is the linguistic process that contains subconscious aspects of language development. Collier states that it is an innate human ability for oral and written acquisition of a language system (Collier 1995). The learner must have a high cognitive level in their first language (oral and written) through their primary school education to achieve an academic success in the second language. The third element of Collier’s model is an academic development which consists of all school work in different subjects. As pupils progress, the academic work becomes increasingly cognitively challenging because of the complex language domains. According to Collier, “all subject lessons (science, maths etc.) must take place side by side with linguistic development lessons so that conceptual transfer can be done across both languages” (Collier, 1995). In my previous and also present school, EAL pupils have ‘intervention classes’ whereby they are only taken out of the non-core subject i.e. Humanities, to provide second language lessons (English reading/writing) to ensure their progress in core subjects. This method allows EAL pupils to be able to interact with their peers and teacher in mainstream classes. The fourth and final element is called the cognitive development. Collier states that it has been mostly neglected and ignored in the 1970’s (Collier, 1995: 3). Cline and Frederickson (1996) suggested that cognitive abilities and context are interlinked as I witnessed in a year 9 end of the topic test in biology. An EAL pupil (Italian) who had a BICS level of second language comprehension could not attempt any question as she was unable to understand certain words in the questions without any visual or contextualised aid. Moreover, Collier (1995) pointed out that the first language was ignored earlier, therefore leaving pupils cognitively unchallenged in their first language.
Issues affecting EAL pupils in schools
The issues and challenges faced by EAL pupils are vast depending on their level and comprehension of second language. Each pupil will have a different level of English: it is a school’s responsibility to ensure pupils are given appropriate second language support. Pupils are assessed by the school on their knowledge and understanding of English and given the support they need for inclusion. In my present school, pupils are assessed on their arrival so that they can be placed in the appropriate intervention classes. According to MESH, “EAL learners face a triple challenge in their learning”, they have to learn conversational and academic English, they must comprehend the curriculum and finally they must integrate into their newly acquired school and social culture (MESH, 2015). In my previous school, a year 8 pupil (despite intervention classes), was completely mute at all times, the EAL support stated that it is due to the emotional trauma the pupil has suffered leaving her home, pet and friends behind. The pupil was placed on pastoral support to help her overcome traumatic experiences. The EAL pupils also have to familiarise themselves with the different education system from that of their native country, where everything from curriculum to teaching method to classroom routine could be completely alien to them (Cameron et al, 1996: 230, Mackey & Polio, 2009). The layout of the classroom, pupil seating plan, notebooks/textbooks and ways of entering/leaving classroom can be completely new to them. This can be confusing for pupils as they have to become accustomed to a new system of education in a foreign language. The objectives set out by teachers must be made easier and clearer for EAL pupils through differentiation (TS 5.4) and must provide them e.g., with keywords, visual aids, and diagrams to keep them motivated and engaged throughout the lesson to ensure equality and inclusion.
Inclusion of EAL pupils to ensure equality and progress
To ensure EAL pupils progress, schools and teachers must address these issues that hinder EAL pupils’ inclusion in mainstream classes. The issues have to be recognised in theory and then solutions must be implemented in practice for pupils’ successful integration. To measure and record progress, schools use various tools and approaches in the acquisition of second language but use similar procedures for all newly arrived EAL pupils. In my previous and present school, when EAL pupils arrive, they are assessed based on data received from their previous schools and are given a baseline test that is planned and design by qualified EAL support. Assessments are carried out every six months and depending on the results pupils may move up a level. EAL pupils also sit CAT test (cognitive abilities test) to assess their verbal, non-verbal and quantitative (thinking with numbers) abilities. In my present school, EAL pupils of year 7 and 8s are then given 5 hours per week for speaking and listening classes and one grammar lesson as part of their integration programme. Pupils are given a login for online programmes like Lexia and flash academy for reading, comprehension and phonics. This intervention continues until pupils’ requirements are met and they are proficient in their second language. Pupils in year 9-11 are not taken out of the lesson and are encouraged to continue with their language development in the lesson. Pupils are also given EAL pack on arrival; this includes dictionaries, literacy, reading and comprehension books. There are online programmes and apps available to support teachers in my present school, for example; Widget online, Bell foundation, Twinkel and simplified books.
Conclusion
EAL pupils face a number of challenges on arrival at their new school including second language acquisition, new school environment, completely different curriculum and a new culture. The majority of schools have procedures in place to combat the challenges and make integration possible for EAL pupils. These procedures are well designed and thought out to ensure EAL pupils’ progression and academic achievement, however, there are still limitations, e.g., many schools only have a 2 years provision programme for EAL pupils due to limited funding, then intervention classes cease. Schools using separate classes must ensure that integration is done quickly and smoothly. Schools should know that as second language acquisition progresses (CALP) in EAL pupils their cognitive abilities develop in parallel. It is also important that schools adopt a structured and systematic approach suggested by Collier, to progressive learning objectives and assessments; Bloom’s Taxonomy provides for these aims and a means of challenging pupils. From my research and experience, despite limited government funding, it is evident that schools strive to ensure equality of opportunity and that EAL pupils are integrated and given the best start possible in their education
Iram Fazal
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